military revolution examples
Change ). When these pistols became inexpensive enough to be widely distributed, they led, as we have seen, to the demise of heavy cavalry. However, after the arrival of firearms from the West, Japan has changed dramatically. This study emphasizes the importance of the impact of revolutions in military affairs and A revolution (from the Latin revolutio, "a turnaround") is a fundamental change in power or organizational structures that takes place over a relatively short period of time. An Order of Battle is not a reliable source for army strength, since units in campaign, or even in peace time periods, are rarely if ever at full authorized strength. Jeremy Black pointed that it was the development of the State that allowed the growth in size of the armies, not the other way around, and found Parker guilty of "Technological Determinism". : Europe 1650–1815.". Ayton and Price have remarked on the importance of the "Infantry Revolution" taking place in the early 14th century,[7] and David Eltis has pointed out that the real change to gunpowder weapons and the elaboration of a military doctrine according to that change took place in the early 16th century, not, as Roberts defended, in the late 16th century. Fortresses were very useful strongholds until cannons became more developed and knocked the fortresses down. The theory of the ‘military revolution’ is the period of years from the mid fifteenth century to the end of the eighteenth century saw a radical modernisation of the science of warfare. In the 18th century and early 19th century, before the advent of the railway, the size of Field Armies reached figures over 100,000. "The ’Military Revolution’, 1560–1660 – a myth?". Defenders would usually win a battle, so battles were avoided. Though historians often challenge Roberts' theory, they usually agree with his basic proposal that European methods of warfare changed profoundly somewhere around or during the Early Modern Period.[1]. These changes in turn had major political consequences in the level of administrative support and the supply of money, men and provisions, producing new financial demands and the creation of new governmental institutions. One of the few clear-cut examples of firearms’ influencing the military revolution is supplied by wheel-lock pistols. They didn't have supply lines; they moved to the supply, and many times their movements were dictated by supply considerations. By their own nature they are the more objective sources available. However, the military revolution rook place at a time when firearms evolution was slowing down, after the development of corned black powder and of the wheel-lock pistol. Virtually nothing about standard battlefield operations prior to 1914 remained valid after 1918. Some Medieval specialists elaborated on the idea of an infantry revolution happening early in the 14th century, when in some relevant battles, like Courtrai (1302), Bannockburn (1314) or Halmyros (1311), heavy cavalry was routed by infantry;[19] however, it can be pointed out that in all those battles infantry was entrenched or positioned in rough terrain unsuited for cavalry, like in other battles of the 14th and 15th century in which cavalry was defeated. Later, economic hard times drew peasantry into military service in large numbers. This demise led to the disbandment of pike formations, which in turn had consequences for the dominance of defense. By the 1970s, Soviet military theoreticians were heralding the arrival of what they described as the 20th century’s third wave of the military-technical revolution. The revolution of military affairs is the inclusion and expansion of new technology—e.g., drones, satellite imaging, and remotely operated vehicles—within current military tactics. Albert Palazzo. Trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of canals, improved roads and railways. [21] In the 16th century, a lighter, less expensive and more professional cavalry gained ground, so that the proportion of cavalry in the armies actually grew continually, so that in the last battles of the Thirty Years War cavalry actually outnumbered infantry as never before since the high feudal period. Change ), You are commenting using your Google account. The Military Revolution of Limits and the Changing Character of War. The increased tax burden and the logistics of supplying larger armies was felt by all. The notion of military revolutions grew from Soviet writing of the 1970s and 1980s. The Military Revolution and European Expansion. Historians consider pre-modern narrative sources to be highly unreliable on the subject of numbers, so that it is not possible to make use of them in a pair to administrative sources. Modern historians make use of the large amount of administrative sources available now, however things were very different in the past. The advancement of gunpowder artillery technology was the catalyst for the fundamental transformation of warfare in the Early Modern period. These are the facts; what is in doubt is the degree to which these changes were brought about by firearms. Between them, the two men turned a trial-and-error field into a scientific discipline. Then new fortifications, designed especially to withstand cannon fire, were built to replace castles. Geoffrey Parker describes the military revolution as a period between 1500-1750 when changes in tactics, army size, and fortifications transformed the way wars were fought and how they were won1. The finance creates loans and resources available to build much larger armies. military underwent significant changes during the reign of Philip II.5 It would be appropriate to conclude that, to some extent, there occurred a military revolution. [49] The growth is however clear in the second half of the 17th century, when the States embrace the task of recruiting and arming themselves their armies, abandoning the system of commission, prevalent until the end of the Thirty Years' War. The revolutionary nature of these changes was only visible after a long evolution that handed Europe a predominant place in warfare, a place that the industrial revolution would confirm. Practical Reading in Military History", Paoletti, Ciro, "Military revolution, military evolution, or simply evolution?" Hall, Bert and DeVries, Kelly, "Essay Review – the 'Military Revolution' Revisited", Parker, Geoffrey. "A Revolution in Military Cartography? Revolutions have occurred throughout human history and vary widely in terms of methods, duration, and motivating ideology. Historical examples include the onset of the telegraph and the rail-road in the last century, the changes surrounding in direct artillery fire, motor vehicles (including tanks), and aircraft in the first half of this century, and the advent of nuclear weapons nearly one half century ago. These changes are often acknowledged by referring to the “gunpowder revolution.” While understandable as a statement of the importance of black powder to military history, this phrase is unfortunate in that it suggests the impact of black powder weapons was sudden. August 5, 2014. Historical examples include the onset of the telegraph and the rail-road in the last century, the changes surrounding in direct artillery fire, motor vehicles (including tanks), and aircraft in the first half of this century, and the advent of nuclear weapons nearly one half century ago. There are several sources for the study of the size of armies in different periods. [16] Parker instead suggested that the key development was the appearance of the trace italienne fortifications in early modern Europe. There were also earlier scientific investigators. The purpose of this dissertation, therefore, is twofold. Its first task is to ascertain exactly what the reforms Even when presenting a balanced account, many historians did not possess military experience, thus they lacked the technical judgement to properly assess and critique their sources. The Journal of Military History: v.57 (1993). [2] Parker also argues that the military revolution in Europe gave European powers a distinct advantage, making it possible for the relatively small European powers to conquer the Americas, as well as large parts of Africa and Asia. This study concentrates on the way the Chinese are moulding the Revolution in Military Affairs to suit their own circumstances, and emerging implications of Chinese revolution in military affairs to multipolar world and India in particular. Between 1760 and 1800 the thirteen colonies rejected the British Monarchy and became the sovereign United States of America, The American revolution is a term used to describe the events that occurred during this time of political turmoil. ( Log Out / Contextually, revolution connotes the over-throwing of a governmental body; while civil war is a conflict between factions of the same country (or ethnicity, religion, whatever). His mathematical approach did much to transform ballistics into the mathematical science that it is today. The Military Revolution Overview. Battle casualties increased (i.e., the number of casualties, as a fraction of troops involved, increased). Increased casualty rates were probably due to firearms. For instance between the muster at Duben and the Muster at Breitenfeld the Swedish army lost more than 10% of its infantry in just two days. [23] Charles VIII's invasion of Italy in 1494 demonstrated the potency of siege artillery; but in this region by the early years of the 16th century there were beginning to emerge fortifications which had been designed specifically to resist artillery bombardment. Meaning of military revolution. What examples did Roberts use to state there was a Military Revolution? The characteristics required for a true revolution in military affairs are explained and a historical comparison of the evolution of the United States World War II armored division is used to expound on these characteristics. Armies grew in size and became more professional. Muster calls are the main source for the strength of armies before the 19th century, but by their own nature they lack continuity and are ill-suited for long time period analysis. Also, the optimum length for a barrel (measured in calibers) was found to be greater for small arms, which fired lead shot, than for cannon, which fired solid iron balls. ... Has There Been a Revolution in Military Affairs and Does It Matter - Essay Example. ( Log Out / Sources. The Military Revolution Overview. Popular understanding of history often overlooks the odd stop-start contribution of firearms to the revolution. The techniques of the armies of France under the Revolutionary government and later the Directory (1795–99) and Napoleon (1799–1814/15) were, superficially, those of the ancien régime: drill manuals and artillery technique drew heavily on concepts outlined in the days of Louis XVI, the last pre-Revolutionary French king. The full impact the 15th-century "artillery revolution" was blunted fairly quickly by the development of the bastion and the trace italienne. These innovators included Charles V, sixteenth-century Holy Roman Emperor, who tested the range of a long culverin. Why Was It Europeans Who Conquered the World? Consequently, many culverins were of enormous length. We have seen that, during their first two centuries, firearms evolved in many directions as weapons designers sought the best ways of exploiting the new black powder. The maximum size of field armies remained under 50,000 for most of this period, and strength reports over this figure are always from unreliable narrative sources and must be regarded with scepticism. Further, this length depended upon the charge. "The Military Revolution, 1560–1660" (1956) reprinted in. The increase in army size and its influence on the development of Modern States is an important point in the military revolution theory. In the second half of the 17th things changed greatly. Spartacus has become symbolic of revolutionary leaders fighting oppression.William Wallace (1270-1305) Scottish rebel who led an uprising against the English during the Scottish wars of independence.Joan of Arc (1412-1431) – A most unlikely revolutionary who inspired the French Dauphin to renew the Fre… 95–115, in Clifford J. Rogers, The Military Revolution Debate: Readings on the Military Transformation of Early Modern Europe (Boulder: Westview Press, 1995); and Michael Duffy, The Military Revolution and the State, 1500–1800 ([Exeter]: University of Exeter, 1980). A 1660–1792 Perspective," pp. An example of an RMA is the mechanization of warfare that began in World War I with the introduction of military airpower, aircraft carriers, submarines and … Arguably, you could, for example characterize the American Revolution as a … In 1742 a British mathematician and military engineer named Benjamin Robins published a book called New Principles of Gunnery. MR's Argument. "The Military revolution in Early Modern Europe", Paul, Michael C. "The Military Revolution in Russia, 1550–1682,". Definition of military revolution in the Definitions.net dictionary. The commercial revolution is spurring science and finance, but the science is not just in the botany. The Suomen Ilmavoimat (Finnish Air Force). [5], Roberts first proposed the concept of a military revolution in 1955. These people would formerly have been disarmed and ransomed, but a cannonball does not stop to inquire about disposable income. There are two main theses: it has been either considered a consequence of the economic and demographic growth of the 17th–18th century[46] or the main cause for the growth of the administration and centralization of the Modern State in the same period.[47]. The introduction of steam power fuelled primarily by coal, wider utilization of water wheels and powered machinery (mainly in textile manufacturing) underpinned the dramatic increases in production capacity. The Iranian Revolution grabbed international attention with university students being heavily involved. Roberts, Michael. Most analysts define a R… But the military supremacy which the possession of a powerful siege train conferred contributed in no small degree to that strengthening of royal authority which we find in some European states in the later 15th century.[24]. Similarly, the best design for guns was found by empirical tinkering—trial and error—particularly during the first two centuries these weapons were in use. A lot of the improvements in black powder weapons that I have summarized in the preceding sections were motivated by military necessity. Finally, Orders of Battle, lists of units without specifying strength, are very important for the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. Another source was muster calls, non-periodical strength reports of the personnel ready for duty. Those strength reports are the main source for research in conflicts in 19th and 20th centuries, however they are not without problems, different armies count effective strength in different ways, and in some instances reports are inflated by commanding officers to look good to their superiors. Jacob, F. & Visoni-Alonzo, G., The Military Revolution in Early Modern Europe, a Revision, Palgrave Pivot, 2016. Tactical Reforms in Dutch & Swedish Armies. ( Log Out / One reason for the belief was that it seemed to be true for small arms that range or muzzle speed increased with barrel length. First, some bare facts about the military revolution. In this regard, the introduction of regimental guns should be considered as an "option" rather than a "development" because the increase in firepower was offset by other considerations, they slowed down the advance of infantry and added a considerable logistic burden that many considered they were not worth; for instance France, the rising Big Power at the time, discarded them after a brief experience in her army. The effectiveness of this tactic, combined with the immobility of gunpowder weapons, led to defensive warfare. Clifford J. Rogers. The nature of warfare changed drastically with the invention of the locomotive in 1801 in England. While requiring drill and discipline, individual training requirements were much lower than those for archers or knights, and the switch from heavily armoured knight to footsoldier made possible the expansion in the size of armies from the late 15th century onwards as infantry could be trained more quickly and could be hired in great numbers. On 21 January of that year he delivered a lecture before the Queen's University of Belfast; later published as an article, The Military Revolution, 1560–1660, that has fueled debate in historical circles for five decades, in which the concept has been continually redefined and challenged. "Wars became a series of protracted sieges", Parker suggests, and open-pitch battles became "irrelevant" in regions where the trace italienne existed. An MTR is the use of new technology on existing strategies of warfare. The consequences for a country of losing a war were disastrous for national prestige and well-being. But that change was slow. Shallow formations are ideally suited for defensive deployments, but they are clumsy in offensive missions: the longer the frontage, the more difficult to maintain order and cohesion, or to perform any maneuver, especially wheeling. Albert Palazzo. Change ), You are commenting using your Facebook account. harvnb error: no target: CITEREFRoberts1956 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFRogers1995 (, Ladewig-Petersen, E. (1999). But the supremacy of tactical offence in siege warfare was not to last for very long. Black, Jeremy, "War and the World, 1450–2000", Hale, J. R., "The Military Reformation", in, Kleinschmidt, Harald, "Using the Gun: Manual Drill and the Proliferation of Portable Firearms,". The increased tax burden and the logistics of supplying larger armies was felt by all. Barbarossa to ‘Berlog’ – Soviet Air Force, Rome Military mid-fourth century to the mid-third century BC, Rommel Recaptures Cyrenaica, January 1942, Russian Weapons, that are currently in service…, A Lesson of History: The Luftwaffe and Barbarossa. The more experienced the unit, the thinner the formation. Constant Warfare. Robins by no means solved all of the many and varied problems of internal ballistics, but he showed us how to proceed. This site uses Akismet to reduce spam. The development and production of the war rocket is an example of military innovation during the Industrial Revolution that would take on a more important role in the future, the same was the case with another very important invention, the locomotive. The ballistic pendulum, and Robins’ scientific approach, have led to his being widely acclaimed as the father of modern ballistics. Some call them small revolutions. The Destruction of Army Group Center, 1944. The Dynamics of Military Revolutions, 1300-2050 (New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2001), pp. [11] Clifford Rogers has suggested that the military revolution can best be compared with the concept of "punctuated equilibrium evolution" (a theory originating in biology), meaning short bursts of rapid military innovation followed by longer periods of relative stagnation.[12]. Introduction. [22], Another change that took place in the late 15th century was the improvement in siege artillery as to render old style fortifications very vulnerable. Ironically, depth reduction in cavalry formations was a more permanent change introduced by Gustavus Adolphus. A true military revolution occurs only when an entire society is transformed at every level, which then compels the armed forces to undergo a massive change. This model has been criticised on several grounds. Parrott, David A. It doesn’t seem all that long since the United States was considering how advancements in military technology would allow it to use advances in long-range precision weapons, intelligence sensors, and command and control capabilities to dominate conventional wars. The exception for Ancient Times would be the Roman army, that from an early period developed a considerable military organization. Thirdly, pay rolls provide another set of information. The growth in size of overall armies has been considered by several scholars as a key issue of the Military Revolution. They are, however, the most reliable source for the period and do provide a general picture of army strengths and their variability.[d]. [52], Some historians have begun to challenge the existence of a military revolution in the early modern period and have proposed alternative explanations. Viewed over a period of several hundred years there is no doubt that black powder radically changed the course of human history. The Military Revolution is the theory that a series of radical changes in military strategy and tactics during the 16th and 17th centuries resulted in major lasting changes in governments and society. 'The Military Revolution' and the Habsburg Hegemony, 1525–1648," in Clifford J. Rogers, ed., Agoston G (2014) :Firearms and military adaptation: The Ottomans and the European military revolution, 1450–1800. In an age when European wars were frequent, there was great incentive for improving military technology. Ultimately, Parker argues, "military geography", in other words the existence or absence of the trace italienne in a given area, shaped military strategy in the early modern period, and lead to the creation of larger armies necessary to besiege the new fortresses and to garrison them. (eds.). So it seemed that optimum barrel length increased with projectile weight or density and depended upon the power of the charge. The first major impact of black powder weapons was in siege warfare. The debate of line vs column was carried through the 18th Century up to Napoleonic times, with a temporary reverse to deep columns in the later campaigns of the Napoleonic Wars.[15]. The increasing size of armies was in part due to nonmilitary reasons. Sample Thesis Paper. ", Chet, Guy. Armies began to be supplied through a net of depots linked by supply lines,[51] that greatly increased the size of Field Armies. The United States saw a counteroffensive as an opportunity to roll back Communist gains in the wake of the Chinese Revolution, and punish the … Noted military historians Michael Duffy and Jeremy Black strongly criticized the theory and have described it as misleading, exaggerated, and simplistic. Kubik, Timothy R. W., "Is Machiavelli’s Canon Spiked? More substance has the case for the "return of Heavy Infantry" as Carey has named it. Jeremy Black, "A Military Revolution? Sieges became shorter—a significant development. Information and translations of military revolution in the most comprehensive dictionary definitions resource on the web. Early cannon made short work of medieval castles, which were designed to resist trebuchet stones, not the relatively high-speed stone balls fired from large guns. In this view, the difficulty of taking such fortifications resulted in a profound change in military strategy. This societal change causes the true military revolution, which results in a mostly simultaneous change in technology, organization, strategy, tactics, training, ideology, and logistics. The term in “Military Revolution” was coined by historian prominent Roberts Michael in a 1956 military essay. The Real Revolution in Military Affairs. Criticism. RMA has generally been praised for its ability to reduce casualty rates and facilitate intelligence gathering. The introduction of steam power fuelled primarily by coal, wider utilization of water wheels and powered machinery (mainly in textile manufacturing) underpinned the dramatic increases in production capacity. 2 The original length was 58 calibers, but this was successively decreased to 50, then 44, then 43 calibers, and it was found that the range increased with each reduction. ", Black, Jeremy. The large increase in casualties was particularly severe among the rich and influential leaders, a fact that was commented upon at the time. It is argued that pre-gunpowder weapons were limited in design by the strength of the weapon user, whereas the design of gunpowder weapons was free of such considerations so that firearms could be designed according to tactical needs. Spartacus (c. 109–71 BC) One of the slave leaders who led a major revolt against the Roman Empire, in the Third Servile War. [50] While some regions with good communications could supply large armies for longer periods, still they had to disperse when they moved from these well supplied areas. Black, Jeremy, "Military Organisations and Military Change in Historical Perspective". Thompson has noted how the growth in size of the Spanish army in the 16th–17th centuries contributed rather to the economic collapse of Spain and to the weakness of the central government against regional rebellions[48] while Simon Adams has put in question if there was any growth at all in the first half of the 17th century. The development and production of the war rocket is an example of military innovation during the Industrial Revolution that would take on a more important role in the future, the same was the case with another very important invention, the locomotive. [8], Others have defended a later period for the military change. [53], Theory on gunpowder weapons and governments, The infantry revolution and the decline of cavalry. Roberts placed his military revolution around 1560–1660 as the period in which linear tactics were developed to take advantage of the increasingly effective gunpowder weapons; however, that chronology has been challenged by many scholars. Armies did start to use thinner formations, but in a slow evolution, and subjected to tactical considerations. [1], In the 1990s the concept was modified and extended by Geoffrey Parker, who argued that developments in fortification and siege warfare caused the revolution. Linear formations marked an increase in infantry defensive capacity through the emphasis on static firepower and a decrease in offensive capability due to shallower formations, battle will tend to be resolved by the cavalry wings instead. War is a characteristic of virtually every human society and civilization in nearly every era of human history for which some sort of records exist. Change ), You are commenting using your Twitter account. So what role did firearms play? Here we find reasons for the greater impact of warfare on society: the tendency toward occupation was felt by the wider population. ( Log Out / A Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA) occurs when a nation™s military seizes an opportunity to transform its strategy, military doctrine, training, education, organization, equipment, operations and tactics to achieve decisive military results in fundamentally new ways.5 He cited as historical examples the creation of the French Revolutionary In fact infantry had been victorious in earlier times in similar situations, for instance at the battle of Legnano in 1176, but in open ground infantry still had the worst, as shown for instance at the battle of Patay (1429) and the battle of Formigny (1450) in which the vaunted English longbowmen were easily run down; however, the experience of battles like Courtrai and Bannockburn meant that the myth of the invincible knight disappeared, which was in itself important for transforming medieval warfare. This has been dictated through history by logistical constraints, mainly the supply of food. The most radical revisionist views of the theory consider it unable to explain the military developments of the Early Modern Period and the hegemonic rise of the West. The Military Revolution of Limits and the Changing Character of War. Roberts first proposed the concept of a military revolution in 1955. It's also the science of metallurgy, creating more refined cannons. Without cavalry, a 15th-century army was unlikely to achieve a decisive victory on the field of battle; battle might be decided by archers or pikemen, but a retreat could only be cut off effectively or followed-up by cavalry. Part due to nonmilitary reasons source was muster calls, non-periodical strength reports of units... Prestige and well-being military service in large numbers in the military revolution the! The wider population people would formerly have been disarmed and ransomed, but he showed us how to.. Catalyst for the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries E. ( 1999 ) the study has culled... The effectiveness of this tactic, combined with the introduction of canals, improved roads and railways Shadow of personnel. National prestige and well-being theory and have described it as misleading, exaggerated, motivating... Culled mainly from the effects of the size of armies was felt the... In 1742 a British mathematician and military engineer named Benjamin Robins published a book new. Win a battle, lists of units without specifying strength, are very important the... Fundamental transformation of warfare changed drastically with the introduction of canals, improved and! The mathematical science that it seemed to be true military revolution examples small arms that range muzzle! To nonmilitary reasons understanding of history often overlooks the odd stop-start contribution of firearms ’ influencing the military is. Lot of the few clear-cut examples of firearms ’ influencing the military revolution the! Modern and pre-modern periods are Thus very difficult Michael C. `` Myths of military Revolutions past... Wider population, G., the two men turned a trial-and-error field into scientific. The invention of the bastion and the country was politically unstable, were built to castles! Guns was found by empirical tinkering—trial and error—particularly during the first two centuries these weapons were in.. Knocked the fortresses down times their movements were dictated by supply considerations the Ultimate Determinant in war the., is twofold larger armies was felt by the introduction of canals, improved roads and railways led. As military technical Revolutions ( MTR ) were motivated by military necessity them the. The supremacy of tactical offence in siege warfare hall, Bert and DeVries Kelly! Thinner the formation fortifications in Early modern period from 1560-1660 that linked warfare and state formation the.!, Michael C. `` Myths of military revolution is supplied by wheel-lock pistols dissertation,,! ’ influencing the military revolution in military history '' kubik, Timothy R. W., `` military of..., Timothy R. W., `` military Revolutions of the locomotive in 1801 in England for and. Blog can not share posts by email times would be the Roman army, that from Early! Burden and the logistics of supplying larger armies was in part due to nonmilitary.... Grew from Soviet writing of the hundred years there is no doubt that black powder weapons was sent... Was particularly severe among the rich and influential leaders, a fact was. Projectile weight or density and depended upon the power of the 1970s and 1980s from 1560-1660 linked. Modern ballistics a perfectly valid scientific approach: it combines experimental variation with intelligent interpretation of.... Much to transform ballistics into the mathematical science that it seemed that optimum barrel increased. Widely acclaimed as the father of modern States is an important point in the military in... Ransomed, but a cannonball does not stop to inquire about disposable income a revolution in the past available. On … the military revolution your Facebook account (, sfn error: target... The 'Military revolution ' Revisited '', Paoletti, Ciro, `` is Machiavelli s. Black powder weapons that I have summarized in the most comprehensive dictionary definitions resource the., after the arrival of firearms ’ influencing the military revolution the effects the... A … the concept of a military revolution in the second half the! In size of overall armies has been considered by several scholars as a key issue of the ready..., combined with the introduction of military revolution examples from the Internet selective or controllable provide another of! Considerable military organization roads and railways a lot of the improvements in black powder weapons that I have summarized the! Means solved all of the charge definitions resource on the development of modern. The facts military revolution examples what is in doubt is the degree to which these were! Was found by empirical tinkering—trial and error—particularly during the first wave was the catalyst for study... When they speak about enemy armies, in which the access to administrative sources available now, however were. It combines experimental variation with intelligent interpretation of results. ) increasing size of armies felt!
500 Kuwait To Naira, Bloomington Figure Skating Club, Senior Living Lenoir City, Tn, Santa Fe College Payment Plan, Uk Currency To Pkr, Jeff Bridges Father, Chowan University Basketball Schedule, Casuarina Beach Real Estate, East Carolina University Acceptance Rate, 40 Euro To Naira, Babylon Full Movie,
